CITYBLOGGER..PENAFIAN Laman ini tidak bertanggungjawab atas hasil penulisan yang dipetik dari sumbe

Working copy of APES Review Sheet

V. Environmental Quality

A.

1. Air pollution

sulfur dioxide- comes from burning fossil fuels with high sulfur content, is an important precursor to acid rain
carbon monoxide- has a stronger affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen has
radon- comes from rocks below house foundations and has been implicated as the cause of as much as 15 percent of lung cancer cases.
Methane- a greenhouse gas, that is flammable and produced by landfills
carbon dioxide- the major contributor to greenhouse effect, regulated by the Kyoto conference

ozone- stratospheric importance in protecting us from UV radiation. Destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons. Causes lung damage and damage to plant tissue in the troposphere. It is formed by photochemical reactions

CFC's- chlorofluorocarbons give off a chlorine in the stratosphere and the Cl attaches to free oxygen to deplete the ozone layer
ozone1.gif (8100 bytes)
Main environmental effects of ozone depletion are:
lower food-crop production
disruption of marine food chains
increased incidence of skin cancer
reduction of primary productivity in the ocean

Global Warming

Greenhouse gases- methane(CH4), CFC's, carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide(NOX, N2O)
Most data indicate that the mean global annual temperature has increased by .5 degrees C

In the models of global warming, the most important factor contributing to an increase in sea level is the thermal expansion of the oceans

Effects of global warming are:
loss of fertile delta regions for agriculture
change in global patterns of precipitation
extinction of some species that have narrow temperature requirements
increased frequencies of hurricanes

Location where the greatest number of people would be directly affected by global warming-coastlines, esp. under sea level and small islands.

Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxides, CFC's
The greenhouse effect- infrared radiation from the earth's surface is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere.


Co2graph.gif (3895 bytes)

The graph above shows how carbon dioxide levels have increased since 1956. The increased consumption of fossil fuel seem to contribute to the increase in the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere. The yearly fluctuations in the curve indicate seasonal fluctuations in photosynthetic activity.

Technology advances that have reduced particulates
bag filters
electrostatic precipitators

Environmental effects of Acid rain

acidification of lakes and soils
erosion of limestone structure,
damage to plant foliage,
respiratory irritation
Rising number of cars have lead to increases in NOX formation
Catalytic converters do remove NOX's and remove CO

Sources of sulfur dioxides:

coal burning power plants
industrial processes that burn coal and oil

Reactions
2SO2 + O2 ----------->2SO3
SO3 + H20 ---------->H2SO4
H2SO4 + 2H20-------> 2H30+ + SO4-2

Remediation and reduction

add lime to acidified lakes
reduce fossil fuel use
burn lower sulfur fuel
install air pollution devise electrostatic precipitator or flue gas desulfurization (scrubbers)
develop alternative energy sources
burn coal more cleanly and efficiently using fluidized bed combustion

Sources of Nitrous Oxides

automobile exhaust
stationary sources of fuel combustion

Oxides of nitrogen include
NO, NO2, N2O
HNO3 +H20---------> H3O+ + NO3-

Reduction and remediation methods include

reduction in the use of motor vehicles
increase in the efficiency of motor vehicles
install catalytic converter
reduce use of nitrogen fertilizer
use alternative energy sources
burn coal more cleanly and efficiently using fluidized bed combustion
add lime to acidified lakes


Carbon Monoxides

carbon monoxide reduction technology include catalytic converters
oxygenating fuel additives

carbon monoxide reduces the blood's ability to transport oxygen to tissues

Chemical, Physiological and Ecological factors that are altered by acid rain in and around aquatic habitats


Heavy or toxic metals such as Al, Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe are released into solution at lower pH levels
chemical elements are dissolved and kept in solution at lower pH and leave the lake via outflows.
Increased nitrogen levels from nitric acid stimulate plant growth resulting in an algal bloom and depletion of other soil nutrients
Increased nitrogen levels from nitric acid stimulate plant growth resulting in an algal bloom and a decrease in DO levels to a point out of the range of tolerance
increased death and decomposition result in lower DO levels
reduced photosynthesis leads to reduced DO levels
reproduction rates are reduced
disruption of the food web results from the decline or loss of pH sensitive organisms at various trophic levels
survival of eggs, young, fry or fingerlings is reduced
interferes with respiration, damages gills, and prevents oxygen uptake
causes bone decalcification
disrupts muscle contraction
interferes with enzyme activity
causes tissue damage

Causes of lake acidification

sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with atmospheric gases to produce sulfuric acid
NOX in atmosphere react with atmospheric gases to produce nitric acid
sulfuric acid and toxic metals leach from mines
Hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid industrial wastes are discharged into the watershed
organic acids enter the lake as a result of the logging process
organic acids and metallic cations in leachate flow into the lake from leaking sanitary landfills

Chemicals such as DDT and PCB's that are used in one region of the Earth can circulate in the biosphere and affect organisms in a distant region

El Nino La Nina

ElNino1.gif (28578 bytes)

2. Toxic metal pollutants

cadmium- heavy metal that is toxic found in incinerator ash, released when coal is burned
chromium- toxic heavy metal
lead- toxic metal pollutant that is a neurotoxin that comes from air pollution from burning of leaded gasoline or indoors from lead based paints
mercury- toxic metal pollutant that is a neurotoxin

3.Acid deposition can be reduced by reducing the use of fossil fuels

Heavy metals in the municipal sewage sludge would be the strongest reason not to use it as a fertilizer


B. Solid Waste Treatment

Sanitary landfill- this method is used most frequently to get rid of solid waste in the US today. In a sanitary landfill, trash and garbage are crushed and covered each day to prevent accumulation of vermin and spread of disease The greatest problem associated with sanitary landfills is leachate contamination of groundwater
incineration- this method of solid waste disposal reduces the volume of waste but could release toxic emissions into the atmosphere
discharge to sewers, streams and rivers- in this case you are hoping that dilution is the solution. Not a very effective way of getting rid of solid waste.
chemical treatment- this method is best suited for neutralizing the acidic component of waste
biological treatment- introduces microorganisms to breakdown hazardous organic compounds. Bioremediation is the reconstruction of an ecological area with the aid of living organisms. Most of these are microbes. An example of environmental remediation would be spraying PCB consuming bacteria on an area that has soil contaminated with PCB's.

Solid waste management

methods in terms of least energy used to most energy used
reduce------------>reuse-------------------> recycle
The single largest component of municipal solid waste is paper

II. Interdependence of Earth's Systems
A. Kinetic energy- matter in motion has energy
heat flow- energy is transferred from one object to another as the result of a temperature difference
First Law of thermodynamics- the amount of energy in an isolated system stays constant
Second law of Thermodynamics- an energy transformation occurs and results in increased disorder

C. The Solid Earth
The element that constitutes the highest percentage of mass in the Earth's crust is oxygen
The element that constitutes the second highest percentage of mass in the Earth's crust is silicon.
The most common element in the entire solid earth is iron
the second most common is oxygen
Major reserve of nitrogen on this planet is N2 found in the atmosphere
The major reserve of sulfur is in the rocks in the lithosphere

Most volcanism is associated with plate boundaries
Approximately 2.5% of the water on Earth is freshwater (liquid or solid)

D. The Atmosphere

The most abundant gas in the earths atmosphere is N2

E. Biosphere

Trophic levels of organisms-producers lowest, herbivores (primary consumers), carnivores( secondary consumers)

wpe3.jpg (20793 bytes)

Be able to relate these diagrams to the advantages of eating a vegetarian type of diet.
Habitat fragmentation- creates small islands of habitat this reduces species diversity, increases the amount of edge habitat, decreases gene flow within species, usually leads to a decrease in the numbers of top carnivores in the population

Organisms have adaptations to acquire energy from their external environment such as dark, heat absorbing coloration and fangs and claws

Biomes
Tundra
Antarctic environment is very fragile and extremely vulnerable to the disturbances that would accompany development in this biome
Tropical Rain Forest
biome with the most biodiversity. Soils do not have many nutrients in them the majority of the nutrients are tied up in the canopy. If the rainforest is removed the soils are depleted of nutrients quickly
Location where there is the greatest biodiversity. remaining- Tropical rainforests of South America.

When you lose diversity, there is an increased susceptibility to plant diseases

Desert
most of the earth's deserts are approximately 30o latitude north and south because these latitudes are characterized by descending dry air currents
Desertification is occurring most rapidly along the fringes of the Sahara Desert in Africa since nomadic people who aren't using the land wisely are depleting the soils and turning it into desert

Symbiotic relationships
commensalism- + 0 like moss growing on a tree
parasitism- + - ticks feeding on a deer
mutualism- + + bees and flowers
predation- lion eating an antelope on the savannah
competition- starling displacing bluebirds


Evolution is indicated by a population changing not an individual. A good example of the process of evolution would be a population of mosquitoes developing resistance to a pesticide, or a population of microbes developing resistance to a particular antibiotic.
II B. Cycling of Matter

Important inorganic compounds include water and salts

Biogeochemical cycles

Carbon Cycle

carboncycle.gif (18832 bytes)
The two major processes involved in the carbon cycle are photosynthesis and respiration